Hinduism in Japan’s Shrines: Tracing Saraswati Through Time and Tradition

Buddhism and Hinduism contribute to the religious connection between Japan and India, but a deeper parallel lies in the polytheistic and syncretic nature of both countries' native religious traditions.

The Goddess of All Things that Flow

Tokyo is full of shrines and temples, and my neighborhood has its fair share as well. Several large ones are within a 10-minute walk, but my favorite is the self-effacing Nukebenten. It stands quietly at one corner of the intersection named after it, nearly lost in the middle of the tall buildings all around. Instead of skirting the shrine, you might take the path through it, pausing to pay your respects to the deity and admire the koi in the spring-fed pool.

*The Nukebenten shrine and koi swimming in its natural spring pool.*

Nukebenten is dedicated to Benzaiten, the goddess of all things that flow – water, eloquence, knowledge, and music – in Japanese Buddhism. Temples and shrines dedicated to Benzaiten are often built next to water bodies.

One of the most famous shrines dedicated to Benzaiten is the iconic Itsukushima Shrine in Miyajima. It has a striking red torii gate that stands partially submerged in the Seto Inland Sea during high tide.

*Partially submerged torii gate of the Itsukushima Jinja in Miyajima.*

Itsukushima Shrine, which was built in 593 CE, originally enshrined the Munakata Sanjojin – sister deities associated with the sea, maritime safety, and prosperity in Shinto. However, after the arrival of Buddhism, the eldest of the Munakata sisters (Ichikishima-hime-no-Kami) became syncretized with Benzaiten.

The Spirit of Miyajima Benzaiten

The Shinjuku Nukebenten is actually a branch of the Itsukushima Shrine. According to shrine records, a nobleman named Taira no Sukemichi brought the spirit of the Miyajima Benzaiten. There, he enshrined it atop a hill near the Kamakura Kaido, an ancient route connecting Edo with Kamakura, during the late Heian period (794–1185).

What is now the bustling metropolis of Tokyo was largely undeveloped wilderness in those days. Itsukushima shrine provided an easy passage from north to south without having to circumvent the hill. This earned it the nickname Nukebenten, or "pass-through Benzaiten," which eventually led to it becoming associated with helping worshippers overcome life's difficulties.

*Path going through the Nukebenten shrine.*

The Hindu Origins of Benzaiten

Benzaiten in Japan is the product of syncretism between Shinto and Buddhism. However, the reason for her presence in Buddhism in the first place is the result of the syncretization between Buddhism and Hinduism.

Buddhism, as taught by the Buddha himself, is a nontheistic philosophy. In the centuries after the Buddha's death, however, his teachings evolved through interactions with local cultures and philosophies wherever they went, giving rise to diverse schools.

The three major schools of Buddhism today are Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Theravada, practiced in countries like Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar, remains closest to the Buddha's original teachings as preserved in the Pali Canon.

Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, which spread north to China, Korea, Japan, and Tibet, incorporate many elements of Hinduism. Among these are Hindu deities such as Saraswati, the goddess of eloquence, music, and wisdom, who appears in Japanese Buddhism as Benzaiten.

*Sarasvati with alapini vina, Pala period (901–1200 CE), Pala Period, Eastern India.*

*1832 ukiyo-e of Benzaiten by Aoigaoka Keisei.*

How an Ancient River Became the Goddess of Eloquence

In Hinduism, Saraswati's origin predates her identity as a goddess. She was once a mighty river flowing through northwestern India. The Rig Veda, Hinduism's most sacred scripture, is a collection of hymns and poems composed over the course of thousands of years and compiled in its present form about 3500 years ago. It has several verses dedicated to Saraswati, one of which describes her as follows:

We invoke Saraswati, the slayer of mountains, who shatters mountain ridges with her forceful, roaring waves like a mighty warrior – we invoke Her protection with well-worded praise and prayers. (RV 6.61.2)

Also from the Rig Veda, we know that the Vedas were composed on the banks of the River Saraswati, where the Vedic people lived, learned, and performed yajnas (fire ceremonies accompanied by the chanting of Vedic hymns). This led to the river also being revered as the goddess of speech, music, and wisdom in Hinduism.

*Rough map showing where scientists believe Saraswati flowed at the end of the last ice age.*

Unfortunately, the River Saraswati dried up. Geoscientists believe that what had once been a raging glacial river, bringing down Himalayan snowmelt, weakened as the Himalayan icecap receded. Sometime between 9000-4500 BCE, Saraswati ceased to be a glacial river and became rain-fed instead. Then, as the monsoons weakened, Saraswati dried up entirely by around 2300-2000 BCE.

Her legacy as the goddess of eloquence, speech, music, and wisdom, however, lives on.

The Inclusivity of Polytheism that Unites Japan and India

Saraswati is only one of several Hindu deities that came to Japan as part of Buddhism during its spread from India via China and Korea. Other prominent Hindu deities worshipped in Japan include Daikokuten (associated with Mahakala, a form of Shiva), Bonten (Brahma), Daikokunyo (Kali), Kichijoten (Lakshmi), Kangiten (Ganesha), Taishakuten (Indra), Bishamonten (Kubera), and Emma-o (Yama).

Although introduced through Buddhism, many of these deities have also been incorporated into Shinto, reflecting Japan's syncretism of Buddhist and Shinto traditions. The Shichifukujin (Seven Gods of Good Fortune), which frequently include Benzaiten, Daikokuten, Kichijoten, and Bishamonten, exemplify this blend.

Buddhism and Hindu deities certainly contribute to the religious connection between Japan and India. However, I am more struck by the deeper parallel that lies in the polytheistic and syncretic nature of both countries' native religious traditions.

Both Shinto and Hinduism encourage reverence for diverse deities as manifestations of an abstract divine principle. Hinduism today is a rich tapestry of Vedic, Agamic, and Tantric traditions, seamlessly integrating their worship practices, deities, and philosophies into a composite whole embraced by most practicing Hindus. Similarly, Japanese religion combines Shinto's kami worship with elements of Buddhism, Hinduism, Daoism, and folk traditions, creating a fluid and inclusive spiritual landscape.

The Nukebenten Itsukushima Shrine in Shinjuku is part of the Shinjuku Yamanote Shichifukujin pilgrimage, which became popular during the Edo period (1603–1868).

In addition to Nukebenten, the pilgrimage circuit includes:

Taisoji Temple, honoring Hotei
Inari Kio Shrine, honoring Ebisu
Eifukuji Temple, honoring Fukurokuju
Hozenji Temple, honoring Jurojin
Kyoji Temple, also honoring Daikokuten
Zenkokuji temple, honoring Bishamonten

These shrines to deities from diverse religious traditions reflect the shared polytheistic and syncretic spirit that unites Japanese and Indian religious traditions.

Author: Usha Jayaraman